Introduction

Agricultural productivity is continuously threatened by insects, weeds, fungi, bacteria, and other plant pathogens that cause significant crop losses worldwide [1,2]. Conventional chemical pesticides have played an essential role in crop protection; however, their excessive and repeated use has resulted in environmental pollution, pesticide resistance, soil degradation, and risks to human and animal health [3,4]. These limitations have created an urgent need for safer and more efficient crop protection technologies that support sustainable agricultural development. Nanotechnology has emerged as a promising solution by introducing nanopesticides, which improve the delivery and performance of pesticide formulations [5,6]. Nanopesticides consist of nano-sized particles or nano-carriers that enhance the stability, solubility, and controlled release of active ingredients. Compared with conventional pesticides, nanopesticides require lower application rates, provide prolonged protection, and reduce off-target effects, thereby minimizing environmental contamination [2,7,8]. Recent developments in nanomaterials, biotechnology, and precision agriculture have accelerated the adoption of nanopesticides in modern farming [9,10]. Various nanomaterials, including metal nanoparticles, polymeric nanoparticles, silica nanoparticles, and nanoemulsions, are being developed to improve pest management efficiency. These technologies not only increase crop productivity but also reduce production costs and chemical residues in agricultural ecosystems [11,12]. Despite their significant advantages, concerns regarding nanoparticle toxicity, environmental persistence, ecological impacts, and regulatory approval remain major challenges [13,14]. Comprehensive risk assessment and standardized safety guidelines are necessary to ensure the responsible use of nanopesticides [15,16]. This review summarizes recent advances in nanopesticides, their mechanisms of action, environmental safety, major applications, current limitations, and future research directions for sustainable crop protection.

2. Overview of Nanopesticides

Nanopesticides are pesticide formulations that utilize nanotechnology to improve the delivery, effectiveness, and stability of active ingredients [2,5]. These formulations may contain nanoparticles as active agents or as carriers that transport pesticides directly to target pests. Common nanopesticide systems include polymeric nanoparticles, metal nanoparticles, nanoemulsions, liposomes, and silica-based nanocarriers [6,9]. Their small particle size allows better penetration into plant tissues and improved interaction with target organisms, resulting in enhanced pest control and reduced chemical losses [10,11].

3. Mechanisms of Action of Nanopesticides

Nanopesticides improve pest control through several mechanisms [7,8]. Controlled-release formulations gradually release active ingredients over time, extending their effectiveness and reducing repeated pesticide applications [2,5]. Targeted delivery systems ensure that pesticides reach specific pests or infected plant tissues while minimizing effects on non-target organisms [10,12]. Some metal nanoparticles possess direct antimicrobial or insecticidal activity by disrupting cellular membranes, generating reactive oxygen species, or interfering with essential metabolic processes [17,18]. These mechanisms improve pesticide efficiency while reducing environmental contamination.

4. Recent Advances in Nanopesticide Technology

Recent progress in nanotechnology has led to the development of advanced nanopesticide formulations with improved stability, biodegradability, and environmental compatibility [6,9]. Nanoencapsulation techniques protect active ingredients from degradation caused by sunlight, temperature, and moisture [5,10]. Smart nanopesticides capable of responding to environmental stimuli such as pH, temperature, or moisture are also being developed for precision agriculture [18,19]. In addition, artificial intelligence and sensor technologies are increasingly integrated with nanopesticide applications to optimize dosage and application timing [20].

5. Applications in Modern Agriculture

Nanopesticides are widely applied for controlling insects, fungal diseases, bacterial infections, nematodes, and weeds in agricultural crops [3,6]. They are used in cereals, fruits, vegetables, oilseed crops, and horticultural production systems. Their high efficiency allows farmers to reduce pesticide consumption while maintaining effective crop protection [2,11]. Nanopesticides also contribute to integrated pest management (IPM) strategies by supporting sustainable farming practices and minimizing environmental impacts [9,17].

6. Environmental Safety and Risk Assessment

Environmental safety remains one of the most important considerations for nanopesticide applications [13,14]. Controlled-release formulations reduce chemical runoff and groundwater contamination compared with conventional pesticides [5,8]. However, long-term accumulation of nanoparticles in soil and aquatic environments may affect beneficial microorganisms, insects, aquatic organisms, and biodiversity [15,16]. Comprehensive toxicity studies, environmental monitoring, and life-cycle assessments are necessary to evaluate the ecological impacts of nanopesticides before large-scale commercialization [1,20].

7. Challenges and Future Prospects

Although nanopesticides offer numerous advantages, several challenges limit their widespread adoption [13,15]. High production costs, limited commercial availability, insufficient long-term safety data, and inconsistent regulatory frameworks remain major barriers [14,16]. Future research should focus on developing biodegradable nanomaterials, environmentally friendly formulations, and internationally accepted regulatory standards [18,19]. Advances in precision agriculture, smart sensors, artificial intelligence, and nanobiotechnology are expected to further improve the efficiency and safety of nanopesticide technologies [10,20].

8. Conclusion

Nanopesticides represent an important advancement in modern agriculture by providing efficient, targeted, and environmentally friendly crop protection solutions. Their controlled-release properties, enhanced stability, and improved pest control efficiency contribute to sustainable agricultural production while reducing chemical inputs and environmental pollution. Although concerns regarding environmental safety and regulatory approval remain, continuous research and technological innovations are expected to support the safe integration of nanopesticides into future agricultural systems. These developments will play a significant role in improving global food security and promoting sustainable crop protection.

  References

1. Kah, M., Beulke, S., Tiede, K., & Hofmann, T. (2013). Nanopesticides: State of knowledge, environmental fate, and exposure modeling. Critical Reviews in Environmental Science and Technology, 43(16), 1823–1867.
2. Kah, M., Kookana, R. S., Gogos, A., & Bucheli, T. D. (2018). A critical evaluation of nanopesticides and nanofertilizers against conventional agrochemicals. Nature Nanotechnology, 13(8), 677–684.
3. Gogos, A., Knauer, K., & Bucheli, T. D. (2012). Nanomaterials in plant protection and fertilization. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 60(39), 9781–9792.
4. Shang, Y., Hasan, M. K., Ahammed, G. J., et al. (2019). Applications of nanotechnology in plant growth and crop protection. Molecules, 24(14), 2558.
5. Servin, A., & White, J. C. (2016). Nanotechnology in agriculture: Next steps for understanding engineered nanoparticle exposure and risk. NanoImpact, 1, 9–12.
6. Kumar, S., Nehra, M., Dilbaghi, N., et al. (2019). Nano-based smart pesticide formulations for sustainable agriculture. Journal of Controlled Release, 294, 131–153.
7. Dimkpa, C. O., & Bindraban, P. S. (2018). Nanotechnology applications in agriculture. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 66(26), 6462–6473.
8. Rai, M., Ingle, A. P., Gupta, I., & Brandelli, A. (2021). Emerging role of nanotechnology in agriculture. Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology, 105(10), 3927–3940.
9. Lowry, G. V., Avellan, A., & Gilbertson, L. M. (2019). Opportunities and challenges for nanotechnology in agriculture. Nature Nanotechnology, 14(6), 517–522.
10. Wang, P., Lombi, E., Zhao, F. J., & Kopittke, P. M. (2016). Nanotechnology: A new opportunity in plant sciences. Trends in Plant Science, 21(8), 699–712.
11. Chen, H., & Yada, R. (2011). Nanotechnologies in agriculture: New tools for sustainable development. Trends in Food Science & Technology, 22(11), 585–594.
12. Tarafdar, J. C., Raliya, R., Mahawar, H., & Rathore, I. (2014). Development of nano-based agricultural inputs. Agricultural Research, 3(3), 257–262.
13. Zulfiqar, F., Navarro, M., Ashraf, M., et al. (2019). Nanotechnology and sustainable agriculture. Plant Science, 289, 110270.
14. Prasad, R., Kumar, V., & Prasad, K. S. (2017). Nanotechnology in sustainable agriculture. Frontiers in Microbiology, 8, 1014.
15. Raliya, R., Saharan, V., Dimkpa, C., & Biswas, P. (2018). Nanofertilizers for precision agriculture. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 66(26), 6487–6503.
16. . Mishra, S., Singh, H. B., & Keswani, C. (2017). Nanotechnology in agriculture: Opportunities, challenges, and future perspectives. Journal of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry, 6(5), 1689–1693.
17. 17. Khot, L. R., Sankaran, S., Maja, J. M., Ehsani, R., & Schuster, E. W. (2012). Applications of nanomaterials in agricultural production and crop protection: A review. Crop Protection, 35, 64–70. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cropro.2012.01.007
18. 18. Nuruzzaman, M., Rahman, M. M., Liu, Y., & Naidu, R. (2016). Nanoencapsulation, nano-guard for pesticides: A review of recent developments. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 64(7), 1447–1483. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jafc.5b05214
19. 19. Pérez-de-Luque, A., & Rubiales, D. (2009). Nanotechnology for parasitic plant control. Pest Management Science, 65(5), 540–545. https://doi.org/10.1002/ps.1732
20. 20. Kumar, V., Kumar, P., & Singh, J. (2021). Nanotechnology in sustainable agriculture: Current advances and future perspectives. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 28(30), 40183–40212. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-021-14720-2